Bibliographic Resources
Books, scientific publications, reports and newsletters, organized by theme - Newly published literature mainly -2000 and later.

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►The solution
Compensation & insurance
Education & outreach
Fencing & other exclusion methods
Livestock guarding
Repellents & aversive approaches
Translocations, population management
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THE PROBLEM The human dimension

Conover, M.R. (1997). Wildlife management by metropolitan residents in the United States: Practices, perceptions, costs, and values Wildlife Society Bulletin 25(2):306-311 [abstract]

Conforti, V.A. and F.C.C. de Azevedo (2003) Local perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in the Iguacu National Park area, south Brazil. Biological Conservation 111: 215-221 [abstract]

Bagchi S. and C. Mishra (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology 268:3, 217-224 [abstract] Relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation, but by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.

Bostedt, G., and P. Grahn (2008) Estimating cost functions for the four large carnivores in Sweden. Ecological Economics 68:517-524 [abstract] Econometric estimates of predation and social costs of protecting wolverines, wolves, brown bears and lynx, based on ecological models of functional response.

Dickman, A.J. (2008) Key determinants of conflict between people and wildlife, particularly large carnivores, around Ruaha National Park, Tamzania. PhD Thesis, University College London and Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London (pdf 3MB) Adherence to traditional livestock husbandry techniques seemed effective at limiting depredation, but follow-up surveys revealed that views towards focal carnivores remained robust even after many months without an attack, influenced by many different factors.

Dickman, A.J. (2005) An assessment of pastoralist attitudes and wildlife conflict in the Rungwa-Ruaha region, Tanzania, with particular reference to large carnivores Master of Science (M.Sc.) dissertation, University of Oxford. [abstract] [full text, pdf 1MB]

Fuentes, A. (2006) Human-nonhuman primate interconnections and their relevance to anthropology. Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2:1-11 [abstract] [pdf ~90KB] On the need for increased focus of the anthropological gaze towards the human-nonhuman primate interface.

Gusset, M.; Maddock, A.H.; Gunther, G.J.; Szykman, M.; Slotow, R.; Walters, M.; Somers, M.J.(2008) Conflicting human interests over the re-introduction of endangered wild dogs in South Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 83-101 [abstract] Misconceptions and perceptions were more negative among the rural population, in particular due to perceived and real threats of livestock losses.

Hill, C. M. (2004) Farmers' perspectives of conflict at the wildlife-agriculture boundary: Some lessons learned from African subsistence farmers. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 9: 279 - 286 [abstract] Why perceived risk of crop loss to wildlife is often significantly greater than any actual risk.

Hill, C. (2002). Primate conservation and local communities - Ethical issues and debates. American Anthropologist. 104(4): 1184-1194 [abstract]

Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (2005) Policy dimensions in human-wildlife conflicts in Kenya: evidence from Laikipia and Nyandarua Districts. [download policy brief] A report produced by the reviews costs of conflict and recommends action.

Jones, J.PG., Andriamarovololona, M.M., and Hockley, N. 2008. The importance of taboos and social norms to conservation in Madagascar. Conservation Biology 22:976-986. [abstract] Informal institutions are important to conservation because they suggest ways of improving cultural understanding and conservation communication, and where capacity to enforce external conservation rules is limited, they may provide the only effective regulations.

Kabii, T., and Horwitz, P. (2006) A review of landholder motivations and determinants for participation in conservation covenanting programmes. Environmental Conservation 33(1):11-20 The likely influences on landholder decision making when it comes to conservation initiatives, and directions for policy makers and managers of incentive programmes for nature conservation on private lands [abstract]

Kahindi, O. (2001) Cultural perceptions of elephants by the Samburu people in northern Kenya M.Sc. Thesis. Strathclyde University, Scotland [pdf 1.2MB]

Kellert, S.R., M. Black, C.R. Rush and A.J. Bath (1996). Human culture and large carnivore conservation in North America. Conservation Biology 10: 977-990 [abstract] Attitudes toward mountain lions have been highly ambivalent, never assuming the prominence or clarity of views on wolves

Kideghesho, J.R. (2008). Co-existence between the traditional societies and wildlife in western Serengeti, Tanzania: its relevancy in contemporary wildlife conservation efforts. Biodiversity Conservation 17:1861-1881 [abstract] How traditional societies have coexisted with willdife and practical constraints in contemporary conservation efforts.

Knight, J. (1999) Monkeys on the Move: The Natural Symbolism of People-Macaque Conflict in Japan. The Journal of Asian Studies 58: 622-647 (URL)

Lagendijk, D.D.G. and M. Gusset (2008) Human–carnivore coexistence on communal land bordering the Greater Kruger Area, South Africa. Environmental Management (Online) [abstract] Cultural tolerance and largely accepted management policy regarding predator control favours coexist in the vicinity of Kruger National Park

Lauber, T.B., and B.A. Knuth (2004) Effects of information on attitudes toward suburban deer management Wildlife Society Bulletin 32(2): 322-331 [abstract]

Lee, P.C. and Priston, N.E.C. (2005) Perceptions of Pests: Human Attitudes to Primates, Conflict and Consequences for Conservation. In.  J. D. Paterson. (ed.) Commensalism and Conflict: The Primate-Human Interface. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Hignell Printing. (available online)

MacMillan, D., N. Hanleyb and M. Dawa (2004) Costs and benefits of wild goose conservation in Scotland. Biological Conservation 119:475-485 [abstract]

Manfredo, M. J., H. C. Zinn, L. Sikorowski, and J. Jones (1998) Public acceptance of mountain lion management: a case study of Denver, Colorado, and nearby foothills areas. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26:964-970 [abstract]

Miller, K.K. (2009) Human dimensions of wildlife population management in Australasia – history, approaches and directions. Wildlife Research 36: 48–56. [abstract] A‘toolkit’ of methods and approaches for those wishing to undertake, interpret or utilise human dimensions enquiries.

Pirta R.S., Gadgil M. and Kharshikar A.V. (1997). The management of the rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta and hanuman langur Presbytis entellus in Himachal Pradesh, India. Biological Conservation 79:97-106. [abstract]

Ogra M.V. (2008) Human-wildlife conflict and gender in protected area borderlands: A case study of costs, perceptions, and vulnerabilities from Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), India. Geoforum 39:1408-1422.  [abstract] A call for increased gender-sensitivity in human wildlife conflict research

Redpath, S., B. E. Arroyo, F. M. Leckie, P. Bacon, N. Bayfield, R. J. Guttierrez and S. J. Thirgood (2004) Using decision modeling with stakeholders to reduce human-wildlife conflict: a raptor-grouse case study. Conservation Biology 18: 350-359 [abstract]

Riley, E. P. (2007) The human–macaque interface: Conservation implications of current and future overlap and conflict in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. American Anthropologist, 109: 473-484 [abstract] Current patterns of overlapping resource use may not be severely affecting the tonkean macaques or villagers in Lindu, but research points to possible future difficulty.

Selebatso, M.; Moe, S.; Swenson, J. (2008) Do farmers support cheetah Acinonyx jubatus conservation in Botswana despite livestock depredation? Oryx 42: 430-436 [abstract]. The level of farmers' support for cheetah conservation beyond protected areas was: high on private farms, moderate in wildlife management areas, and low on communal lands.

Siex, K.S. and Struhsaker, T.T. (1999) Colobus monkeys and coconuts: a study of perceived human-wildlife conflicts. Journal of Applied Ecology 36:1009-1020 [abstract] No significant negative impact on coconut harvest and a source of tourist revenue: the importance of scientific documentation of perceived human–wildlife conflicts.

Thirgood S. and S. Redpath (2008) Hen harriers and red grouse: science, politics and human-wildlife conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology 45: 1550-1554 [abstract] Despite scientific advances, mitigation of this conflict has been slow due to political and social barriers to finding a sustainable solution.

Treves, A. and K.U. Karanth (2003) Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology 17: 1491-1499 [abstract]

Walpole, M., G.G. Karanja, N.W. Sitati and N. Leader-Williams (2003) Wildlife and people: Conflict and conservation in Masai Mara, Kenya. Wildlife and Development Series No.14, International Institute for Environment and Development, London [pdf file, 2.8MB]

Williams, C. K., G. Ericsson, and T. A. Heberlein. 2002. A quantitative summary of attitudes toward wolves and their reintroduction. Wildlife Society Bulletin 30:575-584 [abstract]

Wilson, C.J. (2004) Could we live with reintroduced large carnivores in the UK? Mammal Review 34: 211-232 [abstract] This review indicates that the the Scottish Highlands have potential to support a viable population of carnivores, but that reintroduction of bears and wolves is unlikely to be acceptable in the foreseeable future due to fears for human safety and significant livestock predation. Reintroduction of the lynx may be feasible.

Zimmermann, A.; Walpole, M.J. and Leader-Williams, N. (2005) Cattle ranchers’ attitudes to conflicts with jaguar Panthera onca in the Pantanal of Brazil. Oryx 39: 406–412 [abstract]Attitudes towards jaguars were mixed and more closely related to respondents’ age and relative wealth than to jaguar-related benefits through tourism or costs through cattle predation

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Athreya, V.R., S.S. Thakur, S. Chaudhuri and A.V. Belsare (2004) A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra. Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Nagpur. Maharashtra Forest Department [Abstract] [link to pdf document]

Bagchi S. and C. Mishra (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology 268:3, 217-224 [abstract] Relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation, but by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.

Baker, P.J.; Boitani, L.; Harris, S.; Saunders, G.; White, P.C.L. (2008) Terrestrial carnivores and human food production: Impact and management. Mammal Review 38: 123-166 [abstract] Globally the major areas of conflict are predation on livestock and the transmission of rabies. We still understand relatively little about the importance of factors affecting predation on livestock and how to manage this conflict effectively.

Brennan E.J., Else J.G. and Altmann J. (1985) Ecology and behaviour of a pest primate: vervet monkeys in a tourist-lodge habitat. African Journal of Ecology 23:35-44 [abstract]

Bostedt, G., and P. Grahn (2008) Estimating cost functions for the four large carnivores in Sweden. Ecological Economics 68:517-524 [abstract] Econometric estimates of predation and social costs of protecting wolverines, wolves, brown bears and lynx, based on ecological models of functional response.

Dickman, A.J. (2008) Key determinants of conflict between people and wildlife, particularly large carnivores, around Ruaha National Park, Tamzania. PhD Thesis, University College London and Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London (pdf 3MB) Adherence to traditional livestock husbandry techniques seemed effective at limiting depredation, but follow-up surveys revealed that views towards focal carnivores remained robust even after many months without an attack, influenced by many different factors.

Dickman, A. J. (2005) An assessment of pastoralist attitudes and wildlife conflict in the Rungwa-Ruaha region, Tanzania, with particular reference to large carnivores. Master dissertation, University of Oxford, pp.89 [abstract] - [full text, pdf 1MB] Number of stock owned and proportion of losses attributed to predators were the most important determinants of conflict, with some inter-tribal variation in tolerance

Ernest, H.B. and Boyce, W.M. (2000) DNA identification of mountain lions involved in livestock predation and public safety incident and investigation. Pages 290-294 in Salmon, T.P and A.C. Crabb (eds) 19th Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of California, Davis, USA [abstract]

Gazzola, A.; Capitani, C.; Mattioli, L.; Apollonio, M. (2008) Livestock damage and wolf presence. Journal of Zoology 274: 261-269 [abstract] Depredation on livestock and wolf pack Canis lupus distribution in Tuscany, Italy, from 1998 to 2001; compensations costs and requests for prevention funding.

Gusset, M., M.J. Swarner, L. Mponwane, K. Keletile and J.W. McNutt (2009) Human–wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by Endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores Oryx 43:67-72 [abstract] Leaving livestock unattended during the day facilitates predation but kraaling livestock at night reduces predation. Compensation did not demonstrably change livestock owners’ willingness to coexist with predators.

Holmern, T.; Nyahongo, J.; R¯skaft, E. (2007) Livestock loss caused by predators outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Biological Conservation 135: 534-542 [abstract] A survey of 481 households: predators, losses and tolerance levels.

Hoogesteijn, R., A. Hoogesteijn, and E. Mondolfi. 1993. Jaguar predation and conservation: cattle mortality caused by felines on three ranches in the Venzuelan Llanos. Pp. 391-407 in M.G.N Dunstone and M.L. Gorman (editors). Mammals as predators. Series Symposia of the Zoological Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Hussain, S. (2003) The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx 37:26-33 [abstract]

Inskip, C.and A. Zimmermann (2009) Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx 43:18-34 [abstract] Patterns and determinants of the severity of felid conflicts, and a geographical overview worldwide. There is a need for evaluation of implemented management strategies.

Johnson, A., C. Vongkhamheng, M. Hedemark and T. Saithongdam (2006). Effects of human–carnivore conflict on tiger (Panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDR. Animal Conservation 9(4): 421-430 [abstract] Zoning and changes in livestock husbandry needed to maintain tigers in the protected areas

Jorgensen, J.P. and K.H. Redford (1993). Humans and big cats as predators in the Neotropics. Pp. 367-390 in M.G.N Dunstone and M.L. Gorman, editors. Mammals as predators. Series Symposia of the Zoological Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kissui, B. (2008) Livestock predation by lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and their vulnerability to retaliatory killing in the Maasai steppe, Tanzania. Animal Conservation 11: 422-432 [asbtract] Complex interactions of social and ecological dimensions of livestock predation and retaliation. Any conservation intervention should strive to address conflict at the appropriate social scale.

Marker, L.L., A.J. Dickman, M.G.L. Mills, and D.W. Macdonald. (2003). Aspects of the management of cheetahs trapped on Namibian farmlands. Biological Conservation 114:401-412 [abstract] Cheetahs reported live-trapped or killed on Namibian farmlands due to a perceived threat to livestock or game

Marker, L.L., J.R. Muntifering, A.J. Dickman, M.G.L. Mills and D.W. Macdonald (2003) Quantifying prey preferences of free-ranging Namibian cheetahs. South African Journal of Wildlife 33: 43-53 [abstract]

Mizutani, F. (1993)Home range of leopards and their impact on livestock on Kenyan ranches. Pp. 425-439 in M.G.N Dunstone, and M.L. Gorman (editors). Mammals as predators. Series Symposia of the Zoological Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Moberly, R.L., P.C.L White, C.C. Webbon, P.J. Baker and S. Harris (2003) Factors associated with fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation of lambs in Britain. Wildlife Research 30: 219-227 [abstract]

Nyhus, P.J. and R. Tilson (2004) Characterizing human-tiger conflict in Sumatra, Indonesia: implications for conservation. Oryx 38:68-74 [abstract]

Odden, J.; Herfindal, I.; Linnell, J.D.C.; Andersen, R. (2008) Vulnerability of domestic sheep to lynx depredation in relation to roe deer density. Journal of Wildlife Management 72: 276-282 [abstract] The results suggest that livestock, rather than being actively selected, are mainly killed by lynx incidentally.

Packer, C., D. Ikanda, B. Kissui and H. Kushnir (2005) Conservation biology: Lion attacks on humans in Tanzania Nature 436, 927-928. Researchers propose measures to curb lion attacks in Tanzania

Patterson, B.D., S. M. Kasiki, E. Selempo and R.W. Kays (2004). Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. Biological Conservation 119(4):507-516 [abstract]

Saberwal, V.K., J.P. Gibbs, R. Chellam and A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994) Lion-human conflict in the Gir forest, India. Conservation Biology 8: 501-7 [abstract] Reasons for hindering support among local to protect Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica)

Sangay,T and K. Vernes (2008). Human-wildlife conflict in the Kingdom of Bhutan: Patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian carnivores. Biological Conservation 141: 1272-1282. [abstract] Several northern districts were identified as `predation hotspots', where proportions. Recommendations.

Treves, A., L. Naughton-Treves, E.K. Harper, D.J. Mladenoff, R.A.Rose, T.A. Sickley and A.P Wydeven (2004) Predicting human-carnivore conflict: a spatial model derived from 25 years of data on wolf predation on livestock. Conservation Biology 18:114-125 [abstract]

Woodroffe & Frank (2005) Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional population impacts Animal Conservation 8: 91-98 [abstract]

Woodroff, R., P. Lindsey, S. Romañachb, A. Steinb and S.M.K. ole Ranahb (2005 Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya. Biological Conservation 124: 225-234 [abstract]

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Boulton A.M., Horrocks J.A. and Baulu J. (1996). The Barbados vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus): changes in population size and crop damage, 1980-1994. International Journal of Primatology 17:831-844. [abstract]

Chiyo, P.I., E.P. Cochrane, L. Naughton and G. I. Basuta (2005).Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants: a response to changes in forage quality or crop availability? African Journal of Ecology 43: 48.[abstract] Crop availability is more important in forest habitats, whereas in savanna habitats large seasonal fluctuations in forage quality have a greater influence

de Freitas C. H., Setz, E. Z. F., Arauj , AR. B. et al. (2008) Agricultural crops in the diet of bearded capuchin monkeys, Cebus libidinosus Spix (Primates: Cebidae), in forest fragments in southeast Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 25(1):32-39 [abstract] Feeding on crops highest when zoochorous fruit production was low in forest fragments.

Gillingham, S. and P.C. Lee (2003) People and protected areas: a study of local perceptions of wildlife crop-damage conflict in an area bordering the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania. Oryx 37:316-325 [abstract]

Gunther, K.A., M.A. Haroldson, K. Frey, S.L. Cain, J. Copeland and C.C.Schwartz (2004) Grizzly bear-human conflicts in the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, 1992-2000. Ursus 15:10-24 [abstract]

Hill CM. (1999). Conflict of interest between people and baboons: crop raiding in Uganda. International Journal of Primatology 21:299-315. [abstract]

Jensen, R.A., Wisz, M.S., and Madsen, J. (2008) Prioritizing refuge sites for migratory geese to alleviate conflicts with agriculture. Biological Conservation 141:1806-1818. [abstract] Historic data, a species distribution model, and a site selection process demonstrate how the current compensation scheme can be made more efficient.

Naughton-Treves, L., Treves, A., Chapman, C.A. & Wrangham, R.W. (1998) Temporal patterns of crop raiding by primates: Linking food availability in croplands and adjacent forest. Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 596–606 [abstract] Planting agroforestry buffers along park edges creates ideal habitat for crop-raiders.

Priston, N. E. C. (2005). Crop-Raiding by Macaca Ochreata Brunnescens in Sulawesi: Reality, Perceptions and Outcomes for Conservation, PhD thesis, University of Cambridge Cambridge (available online)

Riley, E. P. (2007) The human–macaque interface: Conservation implications of current and future overlap and conflict in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. American Anthropologist, 109: 473-484 [abstract] Current patterns of overlapping resource use may not be severely affecting the tonkean macaques or villagers in Lindu, but research points to possible future difficulty.

Saj T.L., Sicotte P. and Paterson J.D. (2001). The conflict between vervet monkeys and farmers at the forest edge in Entebbe, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology 39: 195-199 [abstract]

Sitati, N.W., M.J. Walpole, R.J. Smith and N. Leader-Williams (2003) Predicting spatial aspects of human-elephant conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology 40:667-677 [abstract]

Schley L. and T.J. Roper (2003) Diet of wild boar Sus scrofa in Western Europe, with particular reference to consumption of agricultural crops Mammal Review 33:43-56 [abstract] Their dependence on energy-rich plant material, coupled with large body size and a propensity to trample crops, means that wild boar cause significant agricultural damage.

Tweheyo, M., Hill, C.M. & Obua, J. (2005) Patterns of crop raiding by primates around the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda Wildlife Biology 11: 237-247 [abstract] Using chimpanzees as a case study, patterns of crop damage across the year are compared with seasonal fluctuations in availability of wild foods.

Warren, Y., Buba, B.and Ross, C.(2007) Patterns of crop-raiding by wild and domestic animals near Gashaka Gumti National Park, Nigeria. International Journal of Pest Management 53, 207-216 [abstract] Tantalus monkeys caused the most damage. Farmers with fields closer to wildlife refuges are more likely to experience greater losses. Pro-active guarding could reduce crop losses in Gashaka.

Wright, J. 2004. The primate pet trade in indonesia: A rural perspective. BSc Dissertation, Geography. University of Manchester [abstract] [pdf ~750KB] Negative attitudes towards wild primates, and the primary reason for the acquisition of primates as pets, stem from the human/primate conflicts induced by human encroachment and the crop-raiding behaviour of macaques.

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Clevenger, A.P. and N. Waltho (2005) Performance indices to identify attributes of highway crossing structures facilitating movement of large mammals. Biological Conservation 121:453-464 [abstract] To maximize connectivity across roads for multiple large mammal species, road construction schemes should include a diversity of crossing structures of mixed size classes.

Grilo,C. J.A. Bissonette and M. Santos-Reis (2009) Spatial–temporal patterns in Mediterranean carnivore road casualties: Consequences for mitigation. Biological Conservation 142:301-313 [abstract] Road mortality on a guild of small and medium-sized carnivores in southern Portugal. Mitigation should involve improvement of existing crossings and cutting or removal of dense vegetation.

Malo, J. E., F. Suarez and A. Diez (2004). Can we mitigate animal–vehicle accidents using predictive models? Journal of Applied Ecology 41:701-710 [abstract] A database of 2067 records of animal–vehicle collisions. Modelling of collision risk integrating both landscape and local scalesat could inform decisions on road alignment and on the exact location of crossing structures for mammals

Mastro, L. L., M.R. Conover and S.N. Frey (2008) Deer–vehicle collision prevention techniques. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2(1):80–92. [abstract]

Messmer, T. A and Messmer, D.R. (2008) Deer–vehicle collision statistics and mitigation information: online sources. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2(1):131–135 [abstract]

Seiler, A. (2005) Predicting locations of moose-vehicle collisions in Sweden. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 371-382 [abstract] Road-traffic and landscape parameters accuratly predicts risk of collisions

Spezialea, K.L., S.A. Lambertuccia, and O. Olssonb (2008) Disturbance from roads negatively affects Andean condor habitat use. Biological Conservation 141:1765-1772 [abstract] Andean condors clearly avoid roads, as if trading off safety for energy.

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Blumstien, D., E. Fernández-Juricic, P. Zollner and S. Garity (2005) Inter-specific variation in avian responses to human disturbance. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 943-953 [abstract]. Body size is a potential predictor of responses to human disturbance that could applied to conservation decisions regarding levels of human visitation to a protected site.

Heil, L., E. Fernández-Juricic, D. Renison, V. Nguyen, A.M. Cingolani and D.T. Blumstein (2007) Avian responses to tourism in the biogeographically isolated high Córdoba Mountains, Argentina. Biodiversity and Conservation 16:1009-1026 [abstract]. The results show negative responses to recreationists at multiple levels, including reductions in density and displacement of species from highly visited areas.

Kilpatrick, A.M., C.M. Gillin and PDaszak (In Press) Wildlife–livestock conflict: the risk of pathogen transmission from bison to cattle outside Yellowstone National Park Journal of Applied Ecology [abstract] Model shows that risk is spatially and temporally heterogeneous with local hotspots, strongly dependent on climate and the abundance of bison.

Lepczyk, C.A., A.G. Mertigb and J. Liua (2004) Landowners and cat predation across rural-to-urban landscapes. Biological Conservation 115:191-201 [abstract]

Markovchick-Nicholls, L., Regan, H.M., Deutschman, D.H., Widyanata, A., Martin, B., Noreke, L., and Hunt, T.A. (2008). Relationships between human disturbance and wildlife land use in urban habitat fragments. Conservation Biology 22(1):99-109. [abstract] Maintenance of habitat fragments in urban areas is of conservation benefit to some animal species, despite human activity and disturbance, as long as the fragments are large

Mishra, C., S.E. Van Wieren, P. Ketner, I.M.A. Heitkönig and H.H.T. Prins (2004) Competition between domestic livestock and wild bharal Pseudois nayaur in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Journal of Applied Ecology 41:344-354 [abstract]

Nemtzov , S.C. and L. Olsvig-Whittaker (2003). The use of netting over fishponds as a hazard to waterbirds. Waterbirds 26(4): 416-423 [abstract]

Rabin, L.A., Coss, R.G., and Owings, D.H. (2006). The effects of wind turbines on antipredator behavior in California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi). Biological Conservation 131(3):410-420 The results indicate that behavioral impacts of turbines on wildlife should be considered during future turbine development

Robb, G.N., R.A. McDonald, D.E. Chamberlain and S. Bearhop (2008) Food for thought: supplementary feeding as a driver of ecological change in avian populations. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6:476-484 [abstract] The many and varied responses of birds to supplementary feeding at backyard feeders; positive and negative impacts.

Shrestha, R. and Wegge, P. (2008). Wild sheep and livestock in Nepal Trans-Himalaya: coexistence or competition? Environmental Conservation 35:125-136.[abstract] Diets and habitat use of sympatric wild naur and domestic goat, sheep and free-ranging yak in north Nepal, and their overlap both within and across seasons

Whitfield, D.P., D.R.A. McLeodb, J. Watsonc, A.H. Fieldingd and P.F. Haworthd (2003) The association of grouse moor in Scotland with the illegal use of poisons to control predators. Biological Conservation 114:157-163 [abstract] Ilegal poisoning for controlling protected birds of prey in Scotland are associated with grouse moors were sporting shoots take place

Wong, C.L. and Ni, I-H. (1999) Population dynamics of the feral macaques in the Kowloon Hills of Hong Kong. American Journal of Primatology 50: 53-66 [abstract] Vital statistics as a first step in resolving the problems of human provisioning and wildlife management.

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Berger , K.M. (2006). Carnivore-livestock conflicts: Effects of subsidized predator control and economic correlates on the sheep industry. Conservation Biology 20 (3): 751-761 [abstract] Alternative support mechanisms need to be developed if the goal is to increase sheep production and not simply to kill carnivores.

Bulte, E. and D. Rondeau (2005) Why compensating wildlife damages may be bad for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Management 69:14–19. [abstract] Compensation can lead to a decrease in efforts to prevent damage and conflicts with wildlife

Gazzola, A.; Capitani, C.; Mattioli, L.; Apollonio, M. (2008) Livestock damage and wolf presence. Journal of Zoology 274: 261-269 [abstract] Depredation on livestock and wolf pack Canis lupus distribution in Tuscany, Italy, from 1998 to 2001; compensations costs and requests for prevention funding.

Gusset, M., M.J. Swarner, L. Mponwane, K. Keletile and J.W. McNutt (2009) Human–wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by Endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores Oryx 43:67-72 [abstract] Leaving livestock unattended during the day facilitates predation but kraaling livestock at night reduces predation. Compensation did not demonstrably change livestock owners’ willingness to coexist with predators.

Jensen, R.A., Wisz, M.S., and Madsen, J. (2008) Prioritizing refuge sites for migratory geese to alleviate conflicts with agriculture. Biological Conservation 141:1806-1818. [abstract] Historic data, a species distribution model, and a site selection process demonstrate how the current compensation scheme can be made more efficient.

Kaur, J., Nair, A., and Choudhury, B.C. (2008) Conservation of the Vulnerable sarus crane Grus antigone antigone in Kota, Rajasthan, India: a case study of community involvement. Oryx 42:452-455 [abstract] Success of a community education and awareness campaign to protect the crane's habitat and nests

Mishra, C., P. Allen, T. McCarthy, M. D. Madhusudan, A. Bayarjargal and H.H.T. Prins (2003) The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conservation Biology 17:1512-1520 [abstract]

Naughton-Treves, L., R. Grossberg and A. Treves (2003) Paying for tolerance: rural citizens' attitudes toward wolf depredation and compensation. Conservation Biology 17:1500-1511 [abstract]

Nyhus, P.J., H. Fischer, F. Madden and S. Osofsky (2003). Taking the bite out of wildlife damage: the challenges of wildlife compensation schemes. Conservation in Practice 4: 37–40 (full text online).

Madhusudan, M. D. (2003). Living amidst large wildlife: Livestock and crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of Bhadra Tiger Reserve, south India. Environmental Management 31: 466-475. [abstract] This study estimates the extent of material and monetary loss incurred by resident villagersin conflicts with large felines and elephants indicating that the compensation scheme has largely failed to achieve its objective of alleviating loss.

Moberly, R.L., P.C.L. White, C.C. Webbon, P.J Baker and S. Harris (2004) Modelling the costs of fox predation and preventive measures on sheep farms in Britain . Journal of Environmental Management 70:129-143 [abstract]

Packer, C, D. Ikanda, B. Kissui and H. Kushnir (2006) Conservation biology: Lion attacks on humans in Tanzania.. Nature 436: 927-928.

Verdade, L. M. and C.B. Campos (2004) How much is a puma worth? Economic compensation as an alternative for the conflict between wildlife compensation and livestock production in Brazil. Biota Neotropica, Vol. 4, No. 2 (full text online) [abstract] An example for evaluating the damage and the cost of economic compensation

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Erikson, G, H. Sonntag and K. Westerdahl (2002) A Guide to living with large carnivores. Produced by the Large Carnivore Initiative of Europe (LCIE) and the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF), Sweden. (pdf 518 KB) A guide intended for teachers or study circle leaders, to support their role as instructor, suggest methodology and concrete activities. To use during lessons about the environment in a variety of educational situations from small children to adults

Infield M and Namara A. (2001) Community attitudes and behaviour towards conservation: an assessment of a community conservation programme around Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda. Oryx 35(1):48-60 [abstract]

Gore, M.L. , B.A. Knuth, C.W. Scherer and P.D. Curtis (2008) Evaluating a conservation investment designed to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Conservation Letters 1:136-145 [abstract] An evaluation framework to measure outreach intervention's effect on environmentally responsible behavior, using the case of human-black bear conflict in New York.

Jones, J.PG., Andriamarovololona, M.M., and Hockley, N. 2008. The importance of taboos and social norms to conservation in Madagascar. Conservation Biology 22:976-986. [abstract] Informal institutions are important to conservation because they suggest ways of improving cultural understanding and conservation communication, and where capacity to enforce external conservation rules is limited, they may provide the only effective regulations.

Mulder, M.B., R. Schacht, T. Caro, J.e Schacht and B. Caro (In press) Knowledge and attitudes of children of the Rupununi: Implications for conservation in Guyana. Biological Conservation [abstract] Conservation organizations could enhance the dissemination of their message through making more frequent and sustained visits, imparting more detailed knowledge, and exposing children to the potential dangers of utilization and exploitation

Sprague, D and Iwasaki N. (2006) Coexistence and exclusion between humans and monkeys in Japan: Is either really possible? Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2:30-43 [abstract] [pdf ~1.2MB] Agricultural extension programs aimed at reducing the attractiveness of farmland and villages as feeding sites to monkeys, should also encourage rural communities to reformulate their relationship with monkeys.

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Balharry, E.A. and D.W. Macdonald (1999). Cost-effective electric fencing for protecting gamebirds against Pine Marten Martes martes predation. Mammal Review 29:67-72 [absctract]

de Boer, W.F., J.D. Stigter and C.P. Ntumi (2007) Optimising investments from elephant tourist revenues in the Maputo Elephant Reserve, Mozambique. Journal for Nature Conservation 15(4): 225 - 36. [abstract] A costs-benefit analysis based on elephant population size, fence costs, crop raid costs, elephant poaching, and benefits derived from tourism (game-viewing and hunting)

Fleming, P.J.S. (2000) Wild dogs and their manipulation to prevent livestock predation in Australia. Pages 277-283 in Salmon, T.P and A.C. Crabb (eds) 19th Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of California, Davis, USA. [abstract]

The Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe. Carnivore Damage Prevention Newsletters:
No.5 May 2002: Electric fencing (pdf 316 KB)

Linhart, S.B., J.D. Roberts and G.J. Dasch (1982) Electric fencing reduces coyote predation on pastured sheep. Journal of Range Management 35(3): 276-281 [abstract]

Musiani, M., C. Mamo, L. Boitani, C. Callaghan, C. C. Gates, L. Mattei, E. Visalberghi, S. Breck and G. Volpi (2003) Wolf depredation trends and the use of fladry barriers to protect livestock in western North America . Conservation Biology 17:1538-1547 [abstract]

Okello, M.M. and D.E. D’Amour (2008). Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Journal of Arid Environments 72:2179–2192 [abstract] While the fences have spurred socio-economic activities in the area, they are not only ineffective in reducing human–wildlife conflicts but have given rise to other critical conflicts.

Shivik, J.A. (2006). Tools for the Edge: What's New for Conserving Carnivores. BioScienc 56(3): 253–259 [abstract]. Technological advances have led to many new, commercially available methods for predation management. Evaluating the biological and economic efficiency of disruptive-stimulus and aversive-stimulus approaches is important

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Andelt, W.F. (1999) Relative effectiveness of guarding-dog breeds to deter predation on domestic sheep in Colorado. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27(3): 706-14 [abstract]

Andelt, W.F. (2004). Use of livestock guarding animals to reduce predation on livestock. Sheep & Goat Research Journal 19 [abstract]

Hansen, I. and M.E. Smith (1999). Livestock-guarding dogs in Norway - Part II: Different working regimes. Journal of Range Management 52: 312-316 [abstract]

Hoogesteijn, R., and A. Hoogesteijn, 2008. Conflicts betwen cattle ranching and large predators in Venezuela: could use of water buffalo facilitate felid conservation? Oryx 42(1): 132-138 [abstract] Livestock mortality associated with jaguar and puma may be reduced by keeping buffaloes and cattle in the same paddock, or by keeping only buffalo

The Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe. Carnivore Damage Prevention Newsletters.
No.8 January 2005: Livestock guarding dogs [pdf 2.3MB]
No.9 December 2005: Livestock guarding dogs [pdf 2.4MB]

Linhart, S. B., R. T. Sterner, T. C. Carrigan, and D R. Henne (1979). Komondor guard dogs reduce sheep losses to coyotes: a preliminary evaluation. Journal of Range Management 32(3):238-241 [astract]

McGrew, J. S. and C. S. Blakesley (1982). How Komondor dogs reduce sheep losses to coyotes. Journal of Range Management 35:693–696 [abstract].

Marker, L., A.J. Dickman and D. Macdonald (2005). Perceived effectiveness of Livestock Guarding Dogs placed on Namibian Farms. Journal of Rangeland Management. 58(4): 329-336 [abstract]

Marker, L., A. J. Dickman and D. W. Macdonald (2005). Survivorship and causes of mortality for livestock-guarding dogs on Namibian rangeland. Journal of Rangeland Management 58(4): 337-343 [abstract]

Meadows, L. E., and F. F. Knowlton (2000). Efficacy of guard llamas to reduce canine predation on domestic sheep. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28:614-622 [abstract] Predation may have to reach a threshold before guard llamas have noticeable effects on losses. Producers strongly support the use of llamas as guard animals for sheep

Ogada, M.O., R. Woodroffe, N.O. Oguge and L.G. Frank (2003). Limiting depredation by African carnivores: the role of livestock husbandry. Conservation Biology 17: 1521–30 [abstract] Livestock husbandry had a clear effect on rates of depredation and hence on the numbers of predators killed.

Palmeira, F.B., P.G. Crawshaw, C.M. Haddad, K.M.P.M.B. Ferraz, L.M. Verdade, 2008. Cattle depredation by puma (Puma concolor) and jaguar (Panthera onca) in central-western Brazil. Biological Conservation 141:118-125 [abstract] Concentrated breeding and calving seasons, and keeping calves far from forest areas, would reduce depredation

Rigg, R. (2001) Livestock guarding dogs: their current use world wide. IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group Occasional Paper No 1 [pdf 540KB]

Woodroffe, R.; Frank, L.G.; Lindsey, P.A.; Ole Ranah, S.M.K.; Romanach, S. (2008) Livestock husbandry as a tool for carnivore conservation in Africa's community rangelands: A case-control study. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 1245-1260 [abstract] The risk of predator attack by day was lowest for small herds, accompanied by herd dogs as well as human herders, grazing in open habitat.

Youngs, C.R., J.Pease, D.G. Morrical and J. Luchsinger (1994) Guard llamas: A part of integrated sheep protection. Iowa State University, Extension Service. Guard llamas offer a viable, non-lethal alternative for reducing coyote predation on sheep, while requiring little specialized training and care.(pdf ~ 700KB)

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Andelt, W.W.F., R.L. Phillips, K.S. Gruver, and J.W. Guthrie (1999). Coyote predation on domestic sheep deterred with electronic dog-training collar. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:12-18 [abstract]Collars averted all attempted attacks on lambs and reduced the probability of subsequent attempted attacks

Baker S.E., S.A. Ellwood, D. Slater, R.W. Watkins and D.W. Macdonald ( 2008). Food aversion plus odor cue protects crop from wild mammals. Journal of Wildlife Management 72(3):785-791 [abstract]A test of learned food aversion plus an odor cue to protect untreated crops from European badgers (Meles meles)

Baker, S., S. Ellwood, R. Watkins and D.W. Macdonald (2005).Non-lethal control of wildlife: using chemical repellents as feeding deterrents for the European badger Meles meles.Journal of Applied Ecology 42:921-931[abstract] Ziram has clear potential for reducing badger feeding damage through conditioned taste aversion to an odour

Belant, J.L., T.W. Seamans, C.P. Dwyer (1996). Evaluation of propane exploders as white-tailed deer deterrents Crop Protection  15(6): 575-578 [abstract]

Beringer, J., K.C. VerCauteren, J.J. Millspaugh (2003). Evaluation of an animal-activated scarecrow and a monofilament fence for reducing deer use of soybean fields. Wildlife Society Bulletin  31 (2): 492-498 [abstract]

Bomford, M. and P.H. O'Brien, (1990). Sonic deterrents in animal damage control: a re-view of device tests and effectiveness. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18:411-422 [abstract]

Breck, S.W., R. Williamson, C. Niemeyer and J.A. Shivik (2002) Non-lethal radio activated guard for deterring wolf depredation in Idaho: summary and call for research. Proceedings Vertebrate Pest Conference 20:223-226 [abstract]

Gilsdorf, J.M., S.E. Hygnstrom, K.C. VerCauteren (2002). Use of frightening devices in wildlife damage management. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 7 (1): 29-45 [abstract]

Gustavson, C. R. (1976). Prey-lithium aversion. Coyotes and wolves. Behavioral Biology 17(1):61-72 [abstract]

Karidozo, M. and F.V. Osborn (2005). Can bees deter elephants from raiding crops? An experiment in the communal lands of Zimbabwe Pachyderm No 39 [download pdf 270KB]

Kloppers, E.L., C. C. St. Clair and T.E. Hurd. (2005) Predator-resembling aversive conditioning for managing habituated wildlife. Ecology and Society 10:31 [abstract][full article] A method of aversive conditioning tested in elks, to manage hyperabundant and habituated urban wildlife

Macdonald, D.W. and S.E. Baker (2004) Non-lethal control of fox predation: the potential of generalised aversion. Animal Welfare 13:77-85 [abstract]

Parker, G.E. and Osborn, F.V. (2006) Growing chilli as a means of reducing human-wildlife conflict in Zimbabwe Oryx 40(3):343-346 Chilli is less vulnerable to wildlife than other crops and is also economically viable [abstract]

Osborn, F.V. (2002) Capsicum oleoresin as an elephant repellent: field trials in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Journal of Wildlife Management, 66: 674-677 [abstract]

Reynolds, J.C. (1999) The potential for exploiting conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in wildlife management. Pp. 267-282 in D.P. Cowan and C.J. Feare (editors). Advances in vertebrate pest management. Filander Verlag, Furth, Germany.

Scheifele, P. M., D.G. Browning and L.M Collins-Scheifele (2003). Analysis and effectiveness of deer whistles for motor vehicles: frequencies, levels, and animal threshold responses. Acoustics Research Letters Online. Volume 4 (3): 71-76. [abstract]

Shivik, J.A. (2006). Tools for the Edge: What's New for Conserving Carnivores. BioScience 56(3): 253–259 [abstract]. Technological advances have led to many new, commercially available methods for predation management. Evaluating the biological and economic efficiency of disruptive-stimulus and aversive-stimulus approaches is important

Shivi, J.A., Treves, A. and Callahan, P. (2003) Nonlethal techniques for managing predation: Primary and secondary repellents. Conservation Biology 17(6):1531-1537 [abstract] The studies highlight the complexity of application of nonlethal techniques in real-world situations. Behavior-contingent audio and visual repellents in a multipredator study in the United States.

Ternent, M.A.and D.L. Garshelis (1999). Taste-aversion conditioning to reduce nuisance activity by black bears in a Minnesota military reservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27: 720–728 [abstract]

VerCauteren K.C., J.A. Shivik, M.J. Lavelle (2005). Efficacy of an animal-activated frightening device on urban elk and mule deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33 (4): 1282-1287 [abstract] An evalutaion of various frightening devices for urban mule deer and elk that are available commercially. It shows the importance of research to evaluate the efficacy of new devices so that users know what level of efficacy to expect.

Vollrath, F. and Douglas-Hamilton, I. (2002) African bees to control African elephants Naturwissenschaften 89, 508-511 [abstract] [pdf 230KB]

Wagner, K.K., and D.L. Nolte (2001). Comparison of active ingredients and delivery systems in deer repellents. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29(1):322-330 [abstract]

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Allen, L. (2000) Measuring predator control effectiveness: reducing numbers may not reduce predator impact. Pages 284-289 in Salmon, T.P and A.C. Crabb (eds) 19th Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of California, Davis, USA [abstract]

Balfour, D., Dublin, H.T., Fennessy, J., Gibson, D., Niskanen, L. and Whyte, I.J. (Eds.) (2007). Review of Options for Managing the Impacts of Locally Overabundant African Elephants. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 80 pp. (pdf ~1 MB english, portuguese)

Bradley, E.H.; Pletscher, D.H.; Bangs, E.E.; Kunkel, K.E.; Smith, D.W.; Mack, C.M.; Meier, T.J.; Fontaine, J.A.; Niemeyer, C.C. and Jimenez, M.D. (2005). Evaluating wolf translocation as a nonlethal method to reduce livestock conflicts in the Northwestern United States. Conservation Biology 19: 1498-1508 [abstract] Success of translocations varied and was most affected by the area in which wolves were released

Davies, H.T. and J.T. du Toit (2004)Anthropogenic factors affecting wild dog Lycaon pictus reintroductions: a case study in Zimbabwe. Oryx 38:32-39 [abstract]
After a pack of African wild dogs was reintroduced to Matusadona National Park, communal farmers near the park suggest that wild dog predation on livestock is negligible, still only 20% of the farmers interviewed felt positive about the reintroduction

Donnelly, C.A., R. Woodroffe, D.R. Cox, J. Bourne, G. Gettinby, A.M.Le Fevre, J.P. McInerney and W.I. Morrison (2003) Impact of localized badger culling on tuberculosis incidence in British cattle. Nature 426:834-837 [abstract]

Ekwal I., Yahya H. S. A. and Malik I. (2002). A successful mass translocation of commensal rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta in Vrindaban, India. Oryx 36:87-93 [abstract] This study indicates that trans-location of commensal monkeys from townships to forested areas can be a successful technique

Fleming, P.J.S. (2000) Wild dogs and their manipulation to prevent livestock predation in Australia. Pages 277-283 in Salmon, T.P and A.C. Crabb (eds) 19th Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of California, Davis, USA. [abstract]

Goodrich, J.M. and D.G. Miquelle (2005). Translocation of problem Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica to alleviate tiger-human conflicts. Oryx 39(4):454-457 [abstract] At least in some cases, translocation appears to be a viable alternative to killing or removing problem tigers from the wild

Greentree, C. and G. Saunders (2000) An experimental evaluation of lamb predation in response to fox (Vulpes vulpes) control in south-eastern Australia. Pages 299-303 in Salmon, T.P and A.C. Crabb (eds) 19th Proceedings of the Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of California, Davis, USA [abstract]

Jones, D.N. and T. Nealson (2003) Management of aggressive Australian magpies by translocation. Wildlife Research 30:167-177 [abstract] Translocations were effective in locally reducing the conflict arising from attacks on humans by magpies, but the authors caution against the indiscriminate use of this method.

Pirta R.S., Gadgil M. and Kharshikar A.V. (1997). The management of the rhesus monkey Macaca mulatta and hanuman langur Presbytis entellus in Himachal Pradesh, India. Biological Conservation 79:97-106. [abstract]

Ramsey, D. (2005). Population dynamics of brushtail possums subject to fertility control Journal of Applied Ecology 42 :348-360 [abstract] Immigration can easily compensate for fertility control in pest species where adult survival is high and fecundity is low

Spencer, R.D.; Beausoleil, R.A.; Martorello, D.A. (2007) How agencies respond to human-black bear conflicts: A survey of wildlife agencies in North America. Ursus 18: 217-229 [abstract] Most agencies surveyed relocated problem bears, but few believed relocation was an effective tool.

Sullivan, B.K., M.A. Kwiatkowski and G.W. Schuett (2004) Translocation of urban Gila Monsters: a problematic conservation tool . Biological Conservation 117:235-242 [abstract] The study reports the limitations of translocation as a conservation tool with "nuisance" Gila Monsters.

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Balfour, D., Dublin, H.T., Fennessy, J., Gibson, D., Niskanen, L. and Whyte, I.J. (Eds.) (2007). Review of options for managing the impacts of locally overabundant African elephants. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 80 pp. (pdf ~1 MB english, portuguese)

Estrada, A. (2006) Human and non-human primate co-existence in the Neotropics: A preliminary view of some agricultural practices as a complement for primate conservation. Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2:17-29 [abstract] [pdf ~670KB] Possible benefits of presence and activities of primates to agroecosystems, and the value some agricultural practices for primate conservation in the Neotropics.

Fuentes, A. (2006) Human-nonhuman primate interconnections and their relevance to anthropology. Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2:1-11 [abstract] [pdf ~90KB] On the need for increased focus of the anthropological gaze towards the human-nonhuman primate interface.

Gilbert, M., Watson, R.T., Ahmed, S., Asim, M., and Johnson, J.A. (2007) Vulture restaurants and their role in reducing diclofenac exposure in Asian vultures. Bird Conservation International 17(1):63-77. A valuable interim measure in slowing vulture population decline until diclofenac can be withdrawn from veterinary use [abstract]

Grilo,C. J.A. Bissonette and M. Santos-Reis (2009) Spatial–temporal patterns in Mediterranean carnivore road casualties: Consequences for mitigation. Biological Conservation 142:301-313 [abstract] Road mortality on a guild of small and medium-sized carnivores in southern Portugal. Mitigation should involve improvement of existing crossings and cutting or removal of dense vegetation.

Havlick, D. 2004 Road Kill Conservation In Practice Online Vol 5 no.1 [pdf file, 17KB]
Vehicle collisions can be a matter of life or death, not just for individual animals but for entire species. In Florida, ecologists and engineers have devised an elegantly simple statewide solution.

Huck, M.; Davison, J.; Roper, T. (2008) Predicting European badger Meles meles sett distribution in urban environments. Wildlife Biology 14: 188-198 [abstract] Information that will help to predict potential sites of badger-related problems.

Mastro, L. L., M.R. Conover and S.N. Frey (2008) Deer–vehicle collision prevention techniques. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2(1):80–92 [abstract] Evaluation of techniques that can be used to reduce deer–vehicle collisions

Messmer T.A. and Messmer D.R. (2008) Deer–vehicle collision statistics and mitigation information: online sources. Human–Wildlife Conflicts 2(1):131–135 Most of this information about such measures is readily available via the Internet [abstract]

Monirul M. and H. Khan (2009) Can domestic dogs save humans from tigers Panthera tigris? Oryx 43:44-47 [abstract] Keeping one tethered dog with each group of people working in the mangrove forest reduces the risk of being attacked by tigers.

Osborn, F.V. and G.E. Parker (2003) Towards an integrated approach for reducing the conflict between elephants and people: a review of current research. Oryx 37(1): 1-5 [abstract] A review of the issues that influence the success and failure of methods used to reduce crop damage, suggesting that an integrated, community-based, low-tech approach will be the most sustainable solution

Sprague, D and Iwasaki N. (2006) Coexistence and exclusion between humans and monkeys in Japan: Is either really possible? Ecological and Environmental Anthropology 2:30-43 [abstract] [pdf ~1.2MB] Agricultural extension programs aimed at reducing the attractiveness of farmland and villages as feeding sites to monkeys, should also encourage rural communities to reformulate their relationship with monkeys.

Webber A.D., Hill C.M. and Reynolds V. (2007) Assessing the failure of a community-based human-wildlife conflict mitigation project in Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda Oryx, 41:177-184 [abstract] The sustainability of the live-trap programme and the importance of recognizing and reporting failures.

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Carnivore Damage Prevention Newsletters by the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe:
No.1 March 2000 (pdf 185 KB)
No.2 November 2000 (pdf 200 KB)
No.3 July 2001 (pdf 169 KB)
No.4 October 2001 (pdf 198 KB)
No.5 May 2002: Electric fencing (pdf 316 KB)
No.6 February 2003: Compensation programmes (pdf 209 KB)
No.7 July 2004 (pdf 364 KB)
No.8 January 2005: Livestock guarding dogs (pdf 2.3MB)

Andelt, W.W.F., R.L. Phillips, K.S. Gruver, and J.W. Guthrie (1999). Coyote predation on domestic sheep deterred with electronic dog-training collar. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:12-18 [abstract] Collars averted all attempted attacks on lambs and reduced the probability of subsequent attempted attacks

Athreya,V.R., S.S. Thakur, S. Chaudhuri and A. V. Belsare (2004) A study of the man-leopard conflict in the Junnar Forest Division, Pune District, Maharashtra. Submitted to the Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Nagpur. Maharashtra Forest Department [abstract] [link to pdf files] With a population of around 500 leopards,  this western Indian state has in recent times seen an escalation in man – leopard conflicts. This study measures the degree of conflict and looks at spatial and temporal patterns in conflict intensity –including two regions that differ in topological and socio-economic factors

Bagchi S. and C. Mishra (2006). Living with large carnivores: predation on livestock by the snow leopard (Uncia uncia). Journal of Zoology 268:3, 217-224 [abstract] Relative densities of livestock and wild prey may be reasonable predictors of the extent of predation, but by itself is not an adequate measure of the intensity of conflict even in apparently similar cultural settings.

Baker, P.J.; Boitani, L.; Harris, S.; Saunders, G.; White, P.C.L. (2008) Terrestrial carnivores and human food production: Impact and management. Mammal Review 38: 123-166 [abstract] Globally the major areas of conflict are predation on livestock and the transmission of rabies. We still understand relatively little about the importance of factors affecting predation on livestock and how to manage this conflict effectively.

Berger, K.M. (2006). Carnivore-livestock conflicts: Effects of subsidized predator control and economic correlates on the sheep industry. Conservation Biology 20 (3): 751-761 [abstract] Alternative support mechanisms need to be developed if the goal is to increase sheep production and not simply to kill carnivores.

Bradley, E.H.; Pletscher, D.H.; Bangs, E.E.; Kunkel, K.E.; Smith, D.W.; Mack, C.M.; Meier, T.J.; Fontaine, J.A.; Niemeyer, C.C. and Jimenez, M.D. (2005). Evaluating wolf translocation as a nonlethal method to reduce livestock conflicts in the Northwestern United States. Conservation Biology 19: 1498-1508 [abstract] Success of translocations varied and was most affected by the area in which wolves were released.

Bostedt, G., and P. Grahn (2008) Estimating cost functions for the four large carnivores in Sweden. Ecological Economics 68:517-524 [abstract] Econometric estimates of predation and social costs of protecting wolverines, wolves, brown bears and lynx, based on ecological models of functional response.

Charudutt, M., P. Allen, T. McCarthy, M.D. Madhusudan, A. Bayatjargal and H.T. Prins (2003) The Role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conservation Biology 17: 1512-1520. [abstract] A pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land

Conforti, V.A. and F.C.C. de Azevedo (2003) Local perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in the Iguacu National Park area, south Brazil. Biological Conservation 111: 215-221 [abstract] A first study on local perceptions towards large carnivores in Brazil

Davies, H.T. and J.T. du Toit (2004) Anthropogenic factors affecting wild dog Lycaon pictus reintroductions: a case study in Zimbabwe. Oryx 38:32-39 [abstract] In 1997 a pack of African wild dogs was reintroduced to Matusadona National Park. Surveys among communal farmers near the park suggest that wild dog predation on livestock is negligible, still only 20% of the farmers interviewed felt positive about the reintroduction

Dickman, A.J. (2008) Key determinants of conflict between people and wildlife, particularly large carnivores, around Ruaha National Park, Tamzania. PhD Thesis, University College London and Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London (pdf 3MB) Adherence to traditional livestock husbandry techniques seemed effective at limiting depredation, but follow-up surveys revealed that views towards focal carnivores remained robust even after many months without an attack, influenced by many different factors.

Dickman, A. J. (2005) An assessment of pastoralist attitudes and wildlife conflict in the Rungwa-Ruaha region, Tanzania, with particular reference to large carnivores. Master dissertation, University of Oxford, pp.89 [abstract] - [full text: pdf file1MB] Number of stock owned and proportion of losses attributed to predators were the most important determinants of conflict, with some inter-tribal variation in tolerance

Gazzola, A.; Capitani, C.; Mattioli, L.; Apollonio, M. (2008) Livestock damage and wolf presence. Journal of Zoology 274: 261-269 [abstract] Depredation on livestock and wolf pack Canis lupus distribution in Tuscany, Italy, from 1998 to 2001; compensations costs and requests for prevention funding.

Gusset, M., M.J. Swarner, L. Mponwane, K. Keletile and J.W. McNutt (2009) Human–wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by Endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores Oryx 43:67-72 [abstract] Leaving livestock unattended during the day facilitates predation but kraaling livestock at night reduces predation. Compensation did not demonstrably change livestock owners’ willingness to coexist with predators.

Goodrich, J.M. and D.G. Miquelle (2005). Translocation of problem Amur tigers Panthera tigris altaica to alleviate tiger-human conflicts. Oryx 39(4):454-457 [abstract] At least in some cases, translocation appears to be a viable alternative to killing or removing problem tigers from the wild

Graham, K., A.P. Beckerman and S. Thirgood (2005) Human–predator–prey conflicts: ecological correlates, prey losses and patterns of management. Biological Conservation 122:159-171 [abstract] The study highlights the type of data that could be very informative to management if collected across a range of cases and habitats

Gusset, M.; Maddock, A.H.; Gunther, G.J.; Szykman, M.; Slotow, R.; Walters, M.; Somers, M.J.(2008) Conflicting human interests over the re-introduction of endangered wild dogs in South Africa. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 83-101 [abstract] Misconceptions and perceptions were more negative among the rural population, in particular due to perceived and real threats of livestock losses.

Hoogesteijn, R., and A. Hoogesteijn, 2008. Conflicts betwen cattle ranching and large predators in Venezuela: could use of water buffalo facilitate felid conservation? Oryx 42(1): 132-138 [abstract] Livestock mortality associated with jaguar and puma may be reduced by keeping buffaloes and cattle in the same paddock, or by keeping only buffalo.

Holmern, T.; Nyahongo, J.; R¯skaft, E. (2007) Livestock loss caused by predators outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Biological Conservation 135: 534-542 [abstract] A survey of 481 households: predators, losses and tolerance levels.

Hussain S. (2003) The status of the snow leopard in Pakistan and its conflict with local farmers. Oryx 37:26-33 [abstract] New estimates based on surveys in Baltistan region indicate that 300-420 snow leopards exist within Pakistan but their long-term future is under threat from retaliatory killings by farmers, and poaching for pelts and body parts

Inskip, C.and A. Zimmermann (2009) Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx 43:18-34 [abstract] Patterns and determinants of the severity of felid conflicts, and a geographical overview worldwide. There is a need for evaluation of implemented management strategies.

Johnson, A., C. Vongkhamheng, M. Hedemark and T. Saithongdam (2006). Effects of human–carnivore conflict on tiger (Panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDR. Animal Conservation 9(4): 421-430 [abstract] Zoning and changes in livestock husbandry needed to maintain tigers in the protected areas

Kissui, B. (2008) Livestock predation by lions, leopards, spotted hyenas, and their vulnerability to retaliatory killing in the Maasai steppe, Tanzania. Animal Conservation 11: 422-432 [asbtract] Complex interactions of social and ecological dimensions of livestock predation and retaliation. Any conservation intervention should strive to address conflict at the appropriate social scale.

Kleiven, J., T. Bjerke and B.P. Kaltenborn (2004) Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours. Biodiversity and Conservation 13: 1647-1658 [pdf file, 220KB] A survey on attitudes toward large carnivores among Norwegians showed that general measures of attitudes were of limited value in wildlife management, and that more attention should be given to the situational and social specificity of these attitudes

Kvam, T., K.M. Rosendal, E.M. Rosvold, A. Aune, S.M. Rosendal, K. Brøndbo and P.F. Moa (2004) Sheep mortality in an area close to a major city 2002-2003. Nord-Trøndelag University College HINT Utredning 55:1-57(In Norwegian) [abstract] Linx was responsible for 65% and 24% of summer mortality among radio-collared lambs in forested grazing areas near the Norwegian capital Oslo, in 2002 and 2003

Lagendijk, D.D.G. and M. Gusset (2008) Human–carnivore coexistence on communal land bordering the Greater Kruger Area, South Africa. Environmental Management (Online) [abstract] Cultural tolerance and largely accepted management policy regarding predator control favours coexist in the vicinity of Kruger National Park

Linnell, J. (2004) A new predator policy for Norway. Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, Feature Article Nr1, 3pp. [pdf file, 220KB] Given the strength of anti-carnivore feelings in Norway, it is positive that the government has confirmed that all species of large carnivores will continue to be tolerated, but it remains to be seen whether the system of devolved management responsibility will reduce conflicts and secure carnivore viability

Marker, L.L., A.J. Dickman, M.G.L. Mills, and D.W. Macdonald. (2003). Aspects of the management of cheetahs trapped on Namibian farmlands. Biological Conservation 114:401-412 [abstract] Cheetahs reported live-trapped or killed on Namibian farmlands due to a perceived threat to livestock or game

Marker, L. L., M.G.L. Mills and D.W. Macdonald (2003) Factors influencing perceptions of  conflict and tolerance toward cheetahs on Namibian farmlands. Conservation Biology 17:1290-1298. [abstract] Although cheetahs are still perceived as a problem, farmers' tolerance toward cheetahs has increased

Marker, L.L., J.R. Muntifering, A.J. Dickman, M.G.L. Mills and D.W. Macdonald (2003) Quantifying prey preferences of free-ranging Namibian cheetahs. South African Journal of Wildlife 33: 43-53 [abstract] Cheetahs have long been regarded as a significant threat to the interests of farmers of both game and livestock in Namibia, but this study found they rarely preyed on domestic stock, with apparent selection towards common, indigenous game species

Meadows, L. E., and F. F. Knowlton (2000). Efficacy of guard llamas to reduce canine predation on domestic sheep. Wildlife Society Bulletin 28:614-622 [abstract] Predation may have to reach a threshold before guard llamas have noticeable effects on losses. Producers strongly support the use of llamas as guard animals for sheep

Mishra, C., P. Allen, T. McCarthy, M. D. Madhusudan, A. Bayarjargal and H.H.T. Prins (2003) The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conservation Biology 17: 1512-1520. [abstract] A pilot incentive program in India that aims to offset losses due to livestock predation and to enhance wild prey density by creating livestock-free areas on common land

Moberly, R.L., P.C.L White, C.C. Webbon, P.J. Baker and S. Harris(2003) Factors associated with fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation of lambs in Britain. Wildlife Research 30: 219-227 [abstract] The identification of farm characteristics associated with fox predation help to identify problem farms where preventive management should be targeted

Monirul M. and H. Khan (2009) Can domestic dogs save humans from tigers Panthera tigris? Oryx 43:44-47 [abstract] Keeping one tethered dog with each group of people working in the mangrove forest reduces the risk of being attacked by tigers.

Musiani, M., C. Mamo, L. Boitani, C. Callaghan, C. C. Gates, L. Mattei, E. Visalberghi, S. Breck and G. Volpi (2003) Wolf depredation trends and the use of fladry barriers to protect livestock in western North America. Conservation Biology 17: 1538-1547 [abstract] Protecting livestock reduces the necessity for killing wolves

Naughton-Treves, L., R. Grossberg and A. Treves (2003) Paying for tolerance: rural citizens' attitudes toward wolf depredation and compensation. Conservation Biology 17:1500-1511 [abstract] A study testing whether people who had lost domestic animals to wolves or other predators were less tolerant of wolves than neighboring residents who had not, and whether compensation payments improved tolerance in USA.

Nyhus, P.J. and R. Tilson (2004) Characterizing human-tiger conflict in Sumatra, Indonesia: implications for conservation. Oryx 38: 68-74 [abstract] Extent, distribution and impact of human-tiger conflict in Sumatra

Odden, J.; Herfindal, I.; Linnell, J.D.C.; Andersen, R. (2008) Vulnerability of domestic sheep to lynx depredation in relation to roe deer density. Journal of Wildlife Management 72: 276-282 [abstract] The results suggest that livestock, rather than being actively selected, are mainly killed by lynx incidentally.

Ogada, M.O., R. Woodroffe, N.O. Oguge and L.G. Frank (2003). Limiting depredation by African carnivores: the role of livestock husbandry. Conservation Biology 17: 1521–30 [abstract] Livestock husbandry had a clear effect on rates of depredation and hence on the numbers of predators killed.

Packer, C, D. Ikanda, B. Kissui and H. Kushnir (2006) Conservation biology: Lion attacks on humans in Tanzania.. Nature 436: 927-928. Researchers propose measures to curb lion attacks in Tanzania

Palmeira, F.B., P.G. Crawshaw, C.M. Haddad, K.M.P.M.B. Ferraz, L.M. Verdade, 2008. Cattle depredation by puma (Puma concolor) and jaguar (Panthera onca) in central-western Brazil. Biological Conservation 141:118-125 [abstract] Concentrated breeding and calving seasons, and keeping calves far from forest areas, would reduce depredation .

Patterson, B.D., S. M. Kasiki, E. Selempo and R.W. Kays (In press) Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. Biological Conservation. [abstract] Attacks on livestock by lions, hyenas and cheetahs on ranches adjoining Tsavo East National Park are more intense in the wet season; large carnivores take more livestock when native prey are most difficult to find and kill.

Sangay,T and K. Vernes (2008). Human-wildlife conflict in the Kingdom of Bhutan: Patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian carnivores. Biological Conservation 141: 1272-1282. [abstract] Several northern districts were identified as `predation hotspots', where proportions. Recommendations.

Selebatso, M.; Moe, S.; Swenson, J. (2008) Do farmers support cheetah Acinonyx jubatus conservation in Botswana despite livestock depredation? Oryx 42: 430-436 [abstract]. The level of farmers' support for cheetah conservation beyond protected areas was: high on private farms, moderate in wildlife management areas, and low on communal lands.

Spencer, R.D.; Beausoleil, R.A.; Martorello, D.A. (2007) How agencies respond to human-black bear conflicts: A survey of wildlife agencies in North America. Ursus 18: 217-229 [abstract] Most agencies surveyed relocated problem bears, but few believed relocation was an effective tool.

Shivik, J.A. (2006). Tools for the edge: What's new for conserving carnivores. BioScience 56(3): 253–259 [abstract]. Technological advances have led to many new, commercially available methods for predation management. Evaluating the biological and economic efficiency of disruptive-stimulus and aversive-stimulus approaches is important.

Shivik, J.A., Treves, A. and Callahan, P. (2003) Nonlethal techniques for managing predation: Primary and secondary repellents. Conservation Biology 17(6):1531-1537 [abstract] The studies highlight the complexity of application of nonlethal techniques in real-world situations. Behavior-contingent audio and visual repellents in a multipredator study in the United States.

Treves A. and K.U. Karanth (2003) Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology 17: 1491-1499. [abstract] Changing political attitudes and views of nature have shifted the goals of carnivore management from those based on fear and narrow economic interests to those based on a better understanding of ecosystem function and adaptive management

Verdade, L. M. and C.B. Campos (2004) How much is a puma worth? Economic compensation as an alternative for the conflict between wildlife compensation and livestock production in Brazil. Biota Neotropica, Vol. 4, No. 2 (full text online) [abstract] An example for evaluating the damage and the cost of economic compensation

Wilson, C.J. (2004) Could we live with reintroduced large carnivores in the UK? Mammal Review 34: 211-232 [abstract] The Scottish Highlands have potential to support a viable population of carnivores, but reintroduction of bears and wolves is unlikely to be acceptable in due to fears for human safety and significant livestock predation. Reintroduction of the lynx may be feasible

Wilson, M. 1997. The wolf in Yellowstone: science, symbol or politics? Deconstructing the conflict between environmentalists and wise use. Society and Natural Resources 10:453-468 [abstract]

Woodroffe & Frank (2005) Lethal control of African lions (Panthera leo): local and regional population impacts Animal Conservation 8: 91-98 [abstract] Lion-people coexistence may depend on deterring predators from acquiring stock-killing behaviour

Woodroffe, R.; Frank, L.G.; Lindsey, P.A.; Ole Ranah, S.M.K.; Romanach, S. (2008) Livestock husbandry as a tool for carnivore conservation in Africa's community rangelands: A case-control study. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 1245-1260 [abstract] The risk of predator attack by day was lowest for small herds, accompanied by herd dogs as well as human herders, grazing in open habitat.

Woodroffe, R., P. Lindsey, S. Romañachb, A. Steinb and S.M.K. ole Ranahb (2005 Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya. Biological Conservation 124: 225-234 [abstract] Where wild prey were seriously depleted, wild dogs killed livestock repeatedly

Zimmermann, A.; Walpole, M.J. and Leader-Williams, N. (2005) Cattle ranchers’ attitudes to conflicts with jaguar Panthera onca in the Pantanal of Brazil. Oryx 39: 406–412 [abstract] Attitudes towards jaguars were mixed and more closely related to respondents’ age and relative wealth than to jaguar-related benefits through tourism or costs through cattle predation

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Bostedt, G., and P. Grahn (2008) Estimating cost functions for the four large carnivores in Sweden. Ecological Economics 68:517-524 [abstract] Econometric estimates of predation and social costs of protecting wolverines, wolves, brown bears and lynx, based on ecological models of functional response.

Huck, M.; Davison, J.; Roper, T. (2008) Predicting European badger Meles meles sett distribution in urban environments. Wildlife Biology 14: 188-198 [abstract] Information that will help to predict potential sites of badger-related problems.

Huygens, O.C., F.T. van Manen, D.A. Martorello, H. Hayashi and J. Ishida (2004) Relationships between Asiatic black bear kills and depredation costs in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Ursus 15:197-202 [abstract] Models to determine if annual depredation costs are associated with the number of bears killed. The authors perfome analyses at the regional level based on combined harvest and nuisance kill data.

Lawson S.R. and R.E Manning (2004) Integrating multiple wilderness values into a decision-making model for Denali National Park and Preserve. Journal for Nature Conservation 11:355-362 [abstract] A decision-making model that integrates social, resource, and managerial values associated with the Denali National Park and Preserve.

Malo, J. E., F. Suarez and A. Diez (2004). Can we mitigate animal–vehicle accidents using predictive models? Journal of Applied Ecology 41:701-710 [abstract] A database of 2067 records of animal–vehicle collisions. Modelling of collision risk integrating both landscape and local scalesat could inform decisions on road alignment and on the exact location of crossing structures for mammals

Moberly, R.L., P.C.L. White, C.C. Webbon, P.J Baker and S. Harris (2004) Modelling the costs of fox predation and preventive measures on sheep farms in Britain . Journal of Environmental Management 70: 129-143 [abstract] The case-study of lamb predation by foxes in Britain is used to develop a theoretical economic model with the aim of determining a financially optimal solution to minimise the total costs of livestock predation at the farm-level

Redpath, S., B. E. Arroyo, F. M. Leckie, P. Bacon, N. Bayfield, R. J. Guttierrez and S. J. Thirgood (2004) Using decision modeling with stakeholders to reduce human-wildlife conflict: a raptor-grouse case study. Conservation Biology 18: 350-359 [abstract] A multicriteria analysis to evaluate the perspectives of two groups of stakeholders, grouse managers and raptor conservationists, and the acceptability to them of different management solutions to the conflict of conserving a protected raptor and managing a gamebird.

Santos, M., Vaz, C., Travassos, P. , Cabral, J. A. (2007) Simulating the impact of socio-economic trends on threatened Iberian wolf populations Canis lupus signatus in north-eastern Portugal. Ecological Indicators 7: 649-664 [abstract] Ecological indicators for wolf presence and abundance estimated indirectly from the density of attacks on livestock.

Seiler, A. (2005) Predicting locations of moose-vehicle collisions in Sweden. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 371-382 [abstract] Road-traffic and landscape parameters accuratly predicts risk of collisions

Sitati, N.W., M.J. Walpole, R.J. Smith and N. Leader-Williams (2003) Predicting spatial aspects of human-elephant conflict. Journal of Applied Ecology 40:667-677 [abstract]
Predicting where human-elephant conflict will take place is difficult, due to unpredictability in male elephant foraging behaviour and to variations in the data resolution of studies. Using GIS this study identified spatial correlates of conflict in unprotected elephant range adjacent to the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya

Treves, A., L. Naughton-Treves, E.K. Harper, D.J. Mladenoff, R.A.Rose, T.A. Sickley and A.P Wydeven (2004) Predicting human-carnivore conflict: a spatial model derived from 25 years of data on wolf predation on livestock. Conservation Biology 18: 114-125 [abstract] The method predicts sites of human-carnivore conflicts regionally, using as an example the mixed forest-agriculture landscapes of Wisconsin and Minnesota (USA). This approach could be applied wherever spatial data are available on sites of conflict between wildlife and humans

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de Boer, W.F., J.D. Stigter and C.P. Ntumi (2007) Optimising investments from elephant tourist revenues in the Maputo Elephant Reserve, Mozambique. Journal for Nature Conservation 15(4): 225 - 36. [abstract] A costs-benefit analysis based on elephant population size, fence costs, crop raid costs, elephant poaching, and benefits derived from tourism (game-viewing and hunting)

Blumstien, D., E. Fernández-Juricic, P. Zollner and S. Garity (2005) Inter-specific variation in avian responses to human disturbance. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 943-953 [abstract]. Body size is a potential predictor of responses to human disturbance that could applied to conservation decisions regarding levels of human visitation to a protected site.

Fernández-Juricic E., M. P. Venier, D. Renison and D. T. Blumstein (2005). Sensitivity of wildlife to spatial patterns of recreationist behavior: A critical assessment of minimum approaching distances and buffer areas for grassland birds. Biological Conservation Volume 125, Issue 2, Pages 225-235 [abstract] Not all buffer area calculation methods necessarily eliminates human disturbance.

Heil, L., E. Fernández-Juricic, D. Renison, V. Nguyen, A.M. Cingolani and D.T. Blumstein (2007) Avian responses to tourism in the biogeographically isolated high Córdoba Mountains, Argentina. Biodiversity and Conservation 16:1009-1026 [abstract]. The results show negative responses to recreationists at multiple levels, including reductions in density and displacement of species from highly visited areas.

Karanja G.G. (2003) Tourism impacts in Masai Mara National Reserve. Pages 3-16 in Walpole M., G.G. Karanja, N.W. Sitati and N. Leader-Williams (eds): Wildlife and people: Conflict and conservation in Masai Mara, Kenya. Wildlife and Development Series No.14, International Institute for Environment and Development, London [pdf file, 2.8MB] A study of tourism impacts on habitat and wildlife, the role of law enforcement, and knowledge and adherence to regulations in the Masai Mara National Reserve. Visitors are aware of regulations, but these are broken in over 90% of lion and cheetah viewing events. The final part of the document presents specific recommendations elborated by working groups during the conference.

Beale, C.M. and P. Monagham (2004) Human disturbance: people as predation-free predators? Journal of Applied Ecology 41:335-343 [abstract] Perceived predation risk is a good predictor of the effects of disturbance upon nesting success in cliff-nesting birds. In managing access to wildlife areas there is a need to ensure that larger parties of visitors are kept further away from the nesting areas of vulnerable species.

King, J.M. and J.T. Heinen (2004) An assessment of the behaviors of overwintering manatees as influenced by interactions with tourists at two sites in central Florida. Biological Conservation 117: 227-234 [abstract] Behavioral patterns of manatees as a function of the presence and activities of recreational swimmers and boats in and around Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. Potential management options to better-secure manatees at this critical time of the year.

Laiolo, P. (2004) Diversity and structure of the bird community overwintering in the Himalayan subalpine zone: is conservation compatible with tourism?. Biological Conservation 115:251-262 [abstract] This study emphasises that forest birds and habitats are severely threatened. As deforestation is the consequence of the tourist pressure for fuelwood along the trekking route to Mt. Everest Base Camp, a strict regulation of tourist-related developments is essential to preserve biodiversity and manage land uses within sustainability.

Nevin, O.T. and B.K. Gilbert (2005) Perceived risk, displacement and refuging in brown bears: positive impacts of ecotourism? Biological Conservation 121(4):611-622 [abstract]
By displacing large males, viewing activities increase population may increase population productivity by creating temporal refuge for subordinate age/sex classes.

Storch, I. and C. Leidenberger (2003) Tourism, mountain huts and distribution of corvids in the Bavarian Alps, Germany. Wildlife Biology l9: 301-308 [abstract] Mountain huts and other places frequented by humans contribute to an increased carrying capacity for corvids at higher elevations, with ramifications for other species that corvids prey upon or compete with. Mountain tourism in the Alps may thus conflict with conservation efforts for threatened species such as grouse (Tetraonidae).

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"A partnership between the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) and Born Free Foundation, seeking to resolve conflicts between the needs of people and those of wildlife, and develop long-term, humane solutions."

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